1. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to education. They agree that education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity, and shall strengthen the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. They further agree that education shall enable all persons to participate effectively in a free society, promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations and all racial, ethnic or religious groups, and further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
2. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize that, with a view to achieving the full realization of this right:
(a) Primary education shall be compulsory and available free to all;
(b) Secondary education in its different forms, including technical and vocational secondary education, shall be made generally available and accessible to all by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education;
(c) Higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education;
(d) Fundamental education shall be encouraged or intensified as far as possible for those persons who have not received or completed the whole period of their primary education;
(e) The development of a system of schools at all levels shall be actively pursued, an adequate fellowship system shall be established, and the material conditions of teaching staff shall be continuously improved.
3. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to have respect for the liberty of parents and, when applicable, legal guardians to choose for their children schools, other than those established by the public authorities, which conform to such minimum educational standards as may be laid down or approved by the State and to ensure the religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own convictions.
4. No part of this article shall be construed so as to interfere with the liberty of individuals and bodies to establish and direct educational institutions, subject always to the observance of the principles set forth in paragraph I of this article and to the requirement that the education given in such institutions shall conform to such minimum standards as may be laid down by the State.
UN resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 1966
Showing posts with label International. Show all posts
Showing posts with label International. Show all posts
Monday, June 1, 2009
Thursday, May 21, 2009
A Suspect in Somali Piracy Denies United States Charges
A lawyer for the Somali teenager charged with piracy said on Thursday that his client has been held in virtual isolation since being brought to New York last month — put in solitary confinement, barred from calling his lawyers, and limited to a single one-minute phone conversation with his mother.
Mr. Muse is the only survivor from the group of four men who authorities say boarded an American-flagged cargo ship, the Maersk Alabama, off Somalia on April 8. The ship’s captain, who had offered himself as a hostage, was later rescued in a daring Navy Seal operation, in which three of his captors were killed.
In court, Mr. Weinstein said Mr. Muse needs surgery on his left hand, where the authorities say he was stabbed during a struggle with the crew.
“He’s confused. He’s terrified,” another lawyer, Deirdre von Dornum, said. “As you can imagine, he’s a boy who fishes, and now he’s ended up in solitary confinement here.” She added, “He’s having a very difficult time.”
Source: New York Times
Mr. Muse is the only survivor from the group of four men who authorities say boarded an American-flagged cargo ship, the Maersk Alabama, off Somalia on April 8. The ship’s captain, who had offered himself as a hostage, was later rescued in a daring Navy Seal operation, in which three of his captors were killed.
In court, Mr. Weinstein said Mr. Muse needs surgery on his left hand, where the authorities say he was stabbed during a struggle with the crew.
“He’s confused. He’s terrified,” another lawyer, Deirdre von Dornum, said. “As you can imagine, he’s a boy who fishes, and now he’s ended up in solitary confinement here.” She added, “He’s having a very difficult time.”
Source: New York Times
Wednesday, May 20, 2009
Sharp fall in exports from China
China's exports in April were down 22.6% from a year ago, the sixth successive month of decline.
April's fall in exports was also bigger than the 17.1% annual decline recorded in March.But other data released on Tuesday suggest that Chinese government efforts to stimulate the economy are pushing up investment levels in the country.
Analysts remain optimistic that China will be the first to make its way out of recession.For those Chinese factory owners who send most of their products abroad, there is little relief in these latest trade figures.Some had hoped the worst was over for exporters, but the 22.6% fall was greater than many analysts had expected.
On the other hand, investment in industrial plants and property in cities was 30% higher in the first four months of the year than it had been in the same period of 2008.
Source: BBC
April's fall in exports was also bigger than the 17.1% annual decline recorded in March.But other data released on Tuesday suggest that Chinese government efforts to stimulate the economy are pushing up investment levels in the country.
Analysts remain optimistic that China will be the first to make its way out of recession.For those Chinese factory owners who send most of their products abroad, there is little relief in these latest trade figures.Some had hoped the worst was over for exporters, but the 22.6% fall was greater than many analysts had expected.
On the other hand, investment in industrial plants and property in cities was 30% higher in the first four months of the year than it had been in the same period of 2008.
Source: BBC
Germany agrees 'bad bank' scheme
The German cabinet has agreed a "bad bank" scheme, to enable the country's lenders to remove remaining toxic assets from their balance sheets.
Under the plan, the banks will be able to swap their toxic debt for government-backed bonds, in return for paying an annual fee.
The government hopes the move will encourage banks to start lending again, both to each other and consumers.
Source: BBC
Under the plan, the banks will be able to swap their toxic debt for government-backed bonds, in return for paying an annual fee.
The government hopes the move will encourage banks to start lending again, both to each other and consumers.
Source: BBC
Saturday, May 16, 2009
Russian, Italian leaders discuss G8 in Moscow
“I believe it is a very important matter that we plan to discuss today. There are very important opportunities to find answers to the current economic crisis and introduce a new global management method allowing us to supervise the financial and economic world and avoid any chance of a new crisis,” the Italian premier said.
Source: University of Toronto G8 Research Group
Source: University of Toronto G8 Research Group
Monday, April 27, 2009
Unfettered capitalism as a panacea for global poverty
Finance ministers responsible for overseeing the financial institutions at the heart of the global recession used an international gathering in Washington over the weekend to make amends, promising billions of new lending for emerging markets.
While hardly oblivious to the plight of the poor, economic leaders from the United States, Britain, Japan and other industrial nations have devoted most of their energy over the past year to cleaning up their financial messes at home.
But the risks facing emerging economies in Africa, Asia, South America and Eastern Europe have become so severe that they were impossible to ignore at meetings of the International Monetary Fund and World Bank.
The economies of emerging and developing countries will expand a mere 1.6 per cent in 2009, compared with 6.1 per cent last year, according to the IMF. Already, 50 million people have been thrust into extreme poverty as a result of the crisis, according to the World Bank.
The crisis, rooted in the rampant trading of exotic financial assets by American and European banks, exposed the weaknesses of unfettered capitalism as a panacea for global poverty.
France and Germany teamed up to contribute almost $2-billion (U.S.) to a World Bank program that will finance infrastructure projects in poorer countries that are at risk of stalling because of the crisis, and World Bank president Robert Zoellick said he will be pushing other nations to contribute to the fund. Richer countries’ support of poorer nations isn’t entirely altruistic.
While economic growth in emerging economies has slumped, it still is growth. The economies of the world’s industrialized nations will contract 3.8 per cent this year and won’t grow at all in 2010, according to the IMF.
Source: University of Toronto G8 Research Group
While hardly oblivious to the plight of the poor, economic leaders from the United States, Britain, Japan and other industrial nations have devoted most of their energy over the past year to cleaning up their financial messes at home.
But the risks facing emerging economies in Africa, Asia, South America and Eastern Europe have become so severe that they were impossible to ignore at meetings of the International Monetary Fund and World Bank.
The economies of emerging and developing countries will expand a mere 1.6 per cent in 2009, compared with 6.1 per cent last year, according to the IMF. Already, 50 million people have been thrust into extreme poverty as a result of the crisis, according to the World Bank.
The crisis, rooted in the rampant trading of exotic financial assets by American and European banks, exposed the weaknesses of unfettered capitalism as a panacea for global poverty.
France and Germany teamed up to contribute almost $2-billion (U.S.) to a World Bank program that will finance infrastructure projects in poorer countries that are at risk of stalling because of the crisis, and World Bank president Robert Zoellick said he will be pushing other nations to contribute to the fund. Richer countries’ support of poorer nations isn’t entirely altruistic.
While economic growth in emerging economies has slumped, it still is growth. The economies of the world’s industrialized nations will contract 3.8 per cent this year and won’t grow at all in 2010, according to the IMF.
Source: University of Toronto G8 Research Group
Friday, April 24, 2009
G7 hails China's actions and pledges supoort
The G7 major economies Friday hailed the contribution of “many countries,” including China, in the fight against the global economic crisis and pledged to work toward increasing their clout in international financial institutions.
“Many countries are now playing a major role in the global economy and we welcome their contribution to the collective international effort to promote recovery,” Group of Seven finance officials said in a statement following a meeting in Washington.
“We welcome China’s continued commitment to move to a more flexible exchange rate, which should lead to continued appreciation of the renminbi in effective terms and help promote more balanced growth in China and in the world economy,” the G7 finance ministers and central bank governors said.
The G7 added that they “will work with our international partners to modernize the governance of the international financial institutions in order to enhance their relevance, effectiveness, and legitimacy.”
The People’s Bank of China cut the renminbi’s peg to the dollar in 2005 and since then has allowed it to appreciate steadily, but under close control.
In recent months, the Chinese government appears to have decided the currency had gone up enough against the dollar as the global crisis saps its key export market.
Source: G8 Research Group University of toronto
“Many countries are now playing a major role in the global economy and we welcome their contribution to the collective international effort to promote recovery,” Group of Seven finance officials said in a statement following a meeting in Washington.
“We welcome China’s continued commitment to move to a more flexible exchange rate, which should lead to continued appreciation of the renminbi in effective terms and help promote more balanced growth in China and in the world economy,” the G7 finance ministers and central bank governors said.
The G7 added that they “will work with our international partners to modernize the governance of the international financial institutions in order to enhance their relevance, effectiveness, and legitimacy.”
The People’s Bank of China cut the renminbi’s peg to the dollar in 2005 and since then has allowed it to appreciate steadily, but under close control.
In recent months, the Chinese government appears to have decided the currency had gone up enough against the dollar as the global crisis saps its key export market.
Source: G8 Research Group University of toronto
Saturday, March 28, 2009
China turns to Buddhism to calm Tibet tensions
The Beijing-backed Panchen Lama addressed an international Buddhist audience in English on Saturday, as officially atheist China turned to Buddhism as a balm for internal unrest and international tensions.
The Communist Party tried to root out Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism during the first three decades of its rule, but now recognises the potential of religion to maintain stability.
"Buddhism has proven to have two benefits, it brings a spiritual peace to society and it also helps materially, for instance in disasters and in serving the weakest segments of society," said Shih Lien Hai, president of the World-wide Buddhist Development Association based in Taiwan.
"Religion is a force for stability in society. If government could understand religion's attributes, if it could bring religion's strengths into play, it would be more effective."
Source: Mail & Guardian
The Communist Party tried to root out Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism during the first three decades of its rule, but now recognises the potential of religion to maintain stability.
"Buddhism has proven to have two benefits, it brings a spiritual peace to society and it also helps materially, for instance in disasters and in serving the weakest segments of society," said Shih Lien Hai, president of the World-wide Buddhist Development Association based in Taiwan.
"Religion is a force for stability in society. If government could understand religion's attributes, if it could bring religion's strengths into play, it would be more effective."
Source: Mail & Guardian
Monday, March 23, 2009
South Africa Bars Dalai Lama From a Peace Conference
JOHANNESBURG — South Africa has barred the Dalai Lama, Tibet’s spiritual leader and a Nobel Peace Prize winner, from attending a peace conference here this week that is supposed to promote the 2010 World Cup and the potential of sport to unite people across races and nations.
If South Africa’s intention in barring the Dalai Lama was to keep the attention of the world focused on the World Cup instead of Tibet, it certainly seemed to backfire.
Kjetil Siem, chief executive officer of the Premier Soccer League in South Africa, which organized the peace conference, seemed taken aback on Monday by the storm of protest that had engulfed the conference. It was supposed to be a celebration of South Africa as the rainbow nation of all races united by soccer.
Source: New York Times
If South Africa’s intention in barring the Dalai Lama was to keep the attention of the world focused on the World Cup instead of Tibet, it certainly seemed to backfire.
Kjetil Siem, chief executive officer of the Premier Soccer League in South Africa, which organized the peace conference, seemed taken aback on Monday by the storm of protest that had engulfed the conference. It was supposed to be a celebration of South Africa as the rainbow nation of all races united by soccer.
Source: New York Times
Friday, February 13, 2009
Guangdong GDP set to grow 8.5%
Guangdong province, the country's top economic powerhouse, is forecasting 8.5 percent GDP growth this year, a draft government report said yesterday.
The report is yet to be discussed by delegates to the provincial people's congress, which opens today in the provincial capital of Guangzhou. Growth will be less than last year's 10.1 percent, sources close to the provincial people's congress said. GDP of the province was about 3.57 trillion yuan ($522 billion) last year, down 4.6 percent on 2007.
"As the largest province in terms of GDP, Guangdong will face a tough time in 2009 as it has been greatly affected by the global financial crisis," Governor Huang Huahua said at a government work meeting in December 2008.
Source: China View
The report is yet to be discussed by delegates to the provincial people's congress, which opens today in the provincial capital of Guangzhou. Growth will be less than last year's 10.1 percent, sources close to the provincial people's congress said. GDP of the province was about 3.57 trillion yuan ($522 billion) last year, down 4.6 percent on 2007.
"As the largest province in terms of GDP, Guangdong will face a tough time in 2009 as it has been greatly affected by the global financial crisis," Governor Huang Huahua said at a government work meeting in December 2008.
Source: China View
Wednesday, October 8, 2008
Russian troops leave Georgia war zones
Russian forces on Wednesday abandoned military positions deep inside Georgia in a major pull-back the Kremlin vowed to complete by midnight, two months after the South Ossetia war began.
Source: Mail & Guardian
Source: Mail & Guardian
In bleak forecast, IMF sees major global downturn
In its bleakest forecast in years, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) said on Wednesday the world economy was set for a major downturn, with the United States and Europe either in or on the brink of recession.
Source: Mail & Guardian
Source: Mail & Guardian
Thursday, September 25, 2008
Financial crisis casts cloud over UN poverty meeting
Heads of state, private-sector leaders and development agencies will this week assess the global fight against poverty, where progress is threatened by upheaval in global markets and soaring food prices.
Source: Mail & Guardian
Source: Mail & Guardian
Friday, May 23, 2008
The Union of South American Nations
The Union of South American Nations (Spanish: Unión de Naciones Suramericanas - UNASUR, Portuguese: União de Nações Sul-Americanas - UNASUL, Dutch: Unie van Zuid-Amerikaanse Naties - UZAN) is a supranational and intergovernmental union integrating two existing customs unions; Mercosur and the Andean Community, as part of a continuing process of South American integration. It is modelled on the European Union.
The UNASUR Constitutive Treaty was signed on May 23, 2008.
Source: Wikipedia
The UNASUR Constitutive Treaty was signed on May 23, 2008.
Source: Wikipedia
Friday, June 8, 2007
Systemic Stability & Transparency of Financial Markets
We discussed recent developments in global financial markets, including hedge funds, which, along with the emergence of advanced financial techniques and products, such as credit derivatives, have contributed significantly to the efficiency of the financial system.
Nevertheless, the assessment of potential systemic and operational risks associated with these activities has become more complex and challenging. Given the strong growth of the hedge fund industry and the increasing complexity of the instruments they trade, were affirm the need to be vigilant.
Source: G8 Summit, Heiligendamm, 8 June 2007
Nevertheless, the assessment of potential systemic and operational risks associated with these activities has become more complex and challenging. Given the strong growth of the hedge fund industry and the increasing complexity of the instruments they trade, were affirm the need to be vigilant.
Source: G8 Summit, Heiligendamm, 8 June 2007
Growth and responsibility in Africa
The discussions with African representatives were "very honest, very open" German Chancellor Angela Merkel said after the first working session on the last day of the Summit in Heiligendamm. US$60 billion have been pledged over the coming years to combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis.
The Chancellor's message to the countries of Africa was this: "We are aware of our responsibility and we will honour our commitments." The G8 needed to "fulfil the promises we made," she said.
Source: G8 Summit 2007
The Chancellor's message to the countries of Africa was this: "We are aware of our responsibility and we will honour our commitments." The G8 needed to "fulfil the promises we made," she said.
Source: G8 Summit 2007
Thursday, June 27, 2002
G8 Africa Action Plan
Together, we have an unprecedented opportunity to make progress on our common goals of eradicating extreme poverty and achieving sustainable development. The new round of multilateral trade negotiations begun at Doha, the Monterrey meeting on financing for development, this G8 Summit at Kananaskis and the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, are key milestones in this process.
NEPAD recognizes that the prime responsibility for Africa's future lies with Africa itself. We will continue to support African efforts to encourage public engagement in the NEPAD and we will continue to consult with our African partners on how we can best assist their own efforts. G8 governments are committed to mobilize and energize global action, marshal resources and expertise, and provide impetus in support of the NEPAD's objectives. As G8 partners, we will undertake mutually reinforcing actions to help Africa accelerate growth and make lasting gains against poverty. Our Action Plan focuses on a limited number of priority areas where, collectively and individually, we can add value.
The African peer-review process is an innovative and potentially decisive element in the attainment of the objectives of the NEPAD. We welcome the adoption on June 11 by the NEPAD Heads of State and Government Implementation Committee of the Declaration on Democracy, Political, Economic and Corporate Governance and the African Peer Review Mechanism. The peer-review process will inform our considerations of eligibility for enhanced partnerships. We will each make our own assessments in making these partnership decisions. While we will focus particular attention on enhanced-partnership countries, we will also work with countries that do not yet meet the standards of NEPAD but which are clearly committed to and working towards its implementation. We will not work with governments which disregard the interests and dignity of their people.
However, as a matter of strong principle, our commitment to respond to situations of humanitarian need remains universal and is independent of particular regimes. So, too, is our commitment to addressing the core issues of human dignity and development. The Development Goals set out in the United Nations Millennium Declaration are an important component of this engagement.
Source: G8 Summit, Kananaskis, 27 June 2002
NEPAD recognizes that the prime responsibility for Africa's future lies with Africa itself. We will continue to support African efforts to encourage public engagement in the NEPAD and we will continue to consult with our African partners on how we can best assist their own efforts. G8 governments are committed to mobilize and energize global action, marshal resources and expertise, and provide impetus in support of the NEPAD's objectives. As G8 partners, we will undertake mutually reinforcing actions to help Africa accelerate growth and make lasting gains against poverty. Our Action Plan focuses on a limited number of priority areas where, collectively and individually, we can add value.
The African peer-review process is an innovative and potentially decisive element in the attainment of the objectives of the NEPAD. We welcome the adoption on June 11 by the NEPAD Heads of State and Government Implementation Committee of the Declaration on Democracy, Political, Economic and Corporate Governance and the African Peer Review Mechanism. The peer-review process will inform our considerations of eligibility for enhanced partnerships. We will each make our own assessments in making these partnership decisions. While we will focus particular attention on enhanced-partnership countries, we will also work with countries that do not yet meet the standards of NEPAD but which are clearly committed to and working towards its implementation. We will not work with governments which disregard the interests and dignity of their people.
However, as a matter of strong principle, our commitment to respond to situations of humanitarian need remains universal and is independent of particular regimes. So, too, is our commitment to addressing the core issues of human dignity and development. The Development Goals set out in the United Nations Millennium Declaration are an important component of this engagement.
Source: G8 Summit, Kananaskis, 27 June 2002
Friday, December 15, 2000
Signing of the "United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime"
Japan signed the "United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime" on December 12 (Tue) at a high-level conference held in Palermo, Italy. The signatory was Mr. Kiyohiro Araki, Senior State Secretary for Foreign Affairs.
The Convention was drafted by the Ad Hoc Committee established by UN resolution 53/111 of December 1998, and was adopted by the General Assembly at its Millennium meeting on November 15, 2000. The Convention obliges the State Parties to criminalize certain activities including conspiracy of a serious crime and laundering of proceeds of crime. It also provides for the confiscation of proceeds of crime, jurisdiction, extradition, and mutual legal assistance, etc. The Convention aims at establishing a global legal framework to prevent and promote the cooperation to fight against transnational organized crime.
The Heads of the G8 countries reaffirmed in G8 Communiqué during the Kyushu-Okinawa G8 Summit in July 2000 that they would support for the adoption of the Convention by the end of this year. Japan has played a significant role in negotiations for the drafting of the Convention including its contribution in its capacity as a member of the Bureau of the Ad Hoc Committee.
The High Level Political Signing Conference is co-sponsored by the Government of Italy and the United Nations, which is attended by the President of Italy, UN Secretary-General, and also representatives from many countries including ministerial level officials.
Source: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan
The Convention was drafted by the Ad Hoc Committee established by UN resolution 53/111 of December 1998, and was adopted by the General Assembly at its Millennium meeting on November 15, 2000. The Convention obliges the State Parties to criminalize certain activities including conspiracy of a serious crime and laundering of proceeds of crime. It also provides for the confiscation of proceeds of crime, jurisdiction, extradition, and mutual legal assistance, etc. The Convention aims at establishing a global legal framework to prevent and promote the cooperation to fight against transnational organized crime.
The Heads of the G8 countries reaffirmed in G8 Communiqué during the Kyushu-Okinawa G8 Summit in July 2000 that they would support for the adoption of the Convention by the end of this year. Japan has played a significant role in negotiations for the drafting of the Convention including its contribution in its capacity as a member of the Bureau of the Ad Hoc Committee.
The High Level Political Signing Conference is co-sponsored by the Government of Italy and the United Nations, which is attended by the President of Italy, UN Secretary-General, and also representatives from many countries including ministerial level officials.
Source: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan
Friday, November 12, 1999
The G7 and China in the Management of the International Financial System
For several years, scholars, practitioners and analysts in "think tanks" have conducted an ever more vigorous debate about China's proper relationship with the G7 and now G8 club of major industrial democracies, as this forum increasingly emerges as an effective centre of global governance for the international financial system of the 21st century.
During its quarter century in operation thus far, the G7/8 system has substantially transformed its relationship with China, moving during the 1990's from its initial Tienanmen engendered focus on China as an adversary and object of collective G7 admonition to the current emphasis on China as a supportive player and potential associate of the G7/8 in managing the many economic and political challenges a rapidly globalizing, post European Cold war system have brought.
This progression has hastened recently with the responsible and helpful role China played, in its own interest, in supporting the G7's efforts to combat the Asian-turned-global financial crisis of 1997-9 and to construct a new international financial architecture more appropriate to the conditions of the twenty first century.
This new role for China has led to its inclusion in recently created forums such as the G22 and G20, with the G7 at the core, to manage and modernize the international financial system. Its approach to these bodies and the issues at the centre of their agenda, together with the assets and vulnerabilities China brings, suggest that it is time to develop options for further associating China with the G8 itself.
Source: University of Toronto G8 Information Centre
During its quarter century in operation thus far, the G7/8 system has substantially transformed its relationship with China, moving during the 1990's from its initial Tienanmen engendered focus on China as an adversary and object of collective G7 admonition to the current emphasis on China as a supportive player and potential associate of the G7/8 in managing the many economic and political challenges a rapidly globalizing, post European Cold war system have brought.
This progression has hastened recently with the responsible and helpful role China played, in its own interest, in supporting the G7's efforts to combat the Asian-turned-global financial crisis of 1997-9 and to construct a new international financial architecture more appropriate to the conditions of the twenty first century.
This new role for China has led to its inclusion in recently created forums such as the G22 and G20, with the G7 at the core, to manage and modernize the international financial system. Its approach to these bodies and the issues at the centre of their agenda, together with the assets and vulnerabilities China brings, suggest that it is time to develop options for further associating China with the G8 itself.
Source: University of Toronto G8 Information Centre
Thursday, November 9, 1989
Berliners celebrate the fall of the Wall
The Berlin Wall has been breached after nearly three decades keeping East and West Berliners apart.
At midnight East Germany's Communist rulers gave permission for gates along the Wall to be opened after hundreds of people converged on crossing points. They surged through cheering and shouting and were be met by jubilant West Berliners on the other side. Ecstatic crowds immediately began to clamber on top of the Wall and hack large chunks out of the 28-mile (45-kilometre) barrier.
It had been erected in 1961 on the orders of East Germany's former leader Walter Ulbricht to stop people leaving for West Germany.
Source: BBC
At midnight East Germany's Communist rulers gave permission for gates along the Wall to be opened after hundreds of people converged on crossing points. They surged through cheering and shouting and were be met by jubilant West Berliners on the other side. Ecstatic crowds immediately began to clamber on top of the Wall and hack large chunks out of the 28-mile (45-kilometre) barrier.
It had been erected in 1961 on the orders of East Germany's former leader Walter Ulbricht to stop people leaving for West Germany.
Source: BBC
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